The Impact of Stalking and Its Predictors: Characterizing the Needs of Stalking Victims.

Victims of stalking suffer severe and varied impacts requiring assessment and treatment. Research to inform support is limited. This study examines a national sample of stalking victims to identify the types and prevalence of impact reported and the predictors of impact. A secondary analysis of 258 stalking cases reported to a stalking charity was conducted. Four categories of victim reported impact were coded; psychological and substance abuse, physical health, practical impact on life, and impact on others. Stalking duration, severity, the diversity of stalking behaviors, and the relationship between the victim and perpetrator were investigated as predictors of impact. In all, 48 types of impact were identified with victims experiencing an average of four types. Psychological impact was the most prevalent (91.5%). Several new forms of impact were identified including a variety of impacts on persons known to the victim (e.g., children, friends) in 35.3% of the sample. Increased diversity of stalking behavior was predictive of impact in all models (explaining 11% of the variance in total impact scores), except for physical impact which was not analyzed due to low prevalence. Stalking impact was prevalent and varied, suggesting that victims (and potentially those close to them) require trauma-informed support from clinicians. Future research should include the development of a stalking impact index to improve the consistency of research and clinical assessment of need.

Child Maltreatment and Psychiatric Disorders Increase Risk for Stalking Victimization.

Stalking is a serious public health problem, estimated to affect about 15% of women and 6% of men. Victims of stalking have been reported to be at increased risk for psychological distress, depression, lowered social and daily functioning, and other forms of victimization. The present study sought to determine whether individuals with documented histories of childhood maltreatment and those with psychiatric disorders are at increased risk for stalking victimization. Participants included maltreated children and matched controls (N = 892) from a Midwestern, metropolitan area who were followed up into adulthood. Psychiatric disorders (major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and substance use disorders) were assessed at mean age 29 and borderline personality disorder at age 39. Participants reported lifetime stalking using the Lifetime Trauma and Victimization History instrument and based on a separate measure, past year intimate partner stalking victimization. Analyses controlled for sex, race, and age. Depression, PTSD, antisocial, and borderline personality disorders were associated with increased lifetime risk for stalking victimization. Childhood maltreatment, neglect, and psychiatric disorders (substance use, PTSD, antisocial personality, and borderline personality) predicted increased risk for past year stalking victimization. Findings indicated sex differences in lifetime risk of stalking victimization and race differences in past-year stalking victimization. Although the results reveal relationships among child maltreatment, psychiatric disorders, and stalking victimization, the impact of childhood maltreatment is most salient in terms of past year intimate partner stalking victimization, and particularly for individuals with histories of neglect. Future research is needed to better understand these race and sex differences in stalking victimization.

Work Harassment and Resource Loss Among (Ex)partner Stalking Victims.

Prior research suggests that economic abuse and work sabotage are common tactics for abusers and (ex)partner stalkers. This study examines the context and timing (i.e., during the relationship or during separation) of work harassment among women stalked by abusive (ex)partners among victims who did (n=271) and who did not (n=302) experience work losses (significant problems at work or loss of work due to the abuse/stalking) and whether work losses and non-work related resource losses were associated with current mental health symptoms. Results showed that almost half of the women in the study reported they experienced work losses because of their abusive (ex)partner. Women with work losses experienced more work harassment particularly during periods of separation. Women who experienced work losses also experienced more work harassment, separation attempts, economic control, coercive control, physical and sexual abuse, higher fear levels, and a higher number of non-work related resource losses compared to women who did not report experiencing work losses. Women with work losses experienced more symptoms of current depression, anxiety, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Further, in the multivariate analysis, non-work related resource losses were significantly and uniquely associated with current mental health symptoms. In conclusion, women being stalked by abusive (ex)partners are at significant risk of resource losses, and those losses have long term impacts on mental health suggesting that safety planning for stalking victims should include plans to protect resources as well as physical safety.

Prevalence and Psychosocial Impacts of Stalking on Mental Health Professionals: A Systematic Review.

Research examining the prevalence and impacts of stalking on mental health professionals (MHPs) has grown over the last two decades. Yet only one previous review has been undertaken examining impacts on staff and focusing on clients as stalkers, with prevalence estimated between 10% and 13%. This systematic review sought to assess prevalence of stalking, and associated impacts and methods of coping reported by MHPs, irrespective of perpetrator type. The search included all healthcare professional groups working in a mental health setting, reported in English or with available translation. Secondary searches were conducted through references cited in primary papers. Of the 7,060 papers identified in five databases, 11 peer-reviewed papers met rigorous inclusion criteria and were quality appraised. Reviewed studies reported prevalence rates between 10.2% and 50%, with higher quality papers reporting a narrower band, 13.9% and 14.3%. However, substantial variability in stalking definitions, and quality of methodology precluded precise prevalence estimation. Participants within the included studies disclosed significant adverse impacts on confidence and competence at work as a consequence of their experiences. Staff invoked substantial workplace and lifestyle changes to mitigate impacts of stalking. However, studies revealed staff disclosed stalking by perpetrators other than clients, notably colleagues and intimate partners, as often or more frequently than by clients. Limitations of the included research and future directions are discussed.

Victim reactions to being stalked: Examining the effects of perceived offender characteristics and motivations.

The current research utilized the National Crime Victimization Survey Supplemental Victimization Survey to investigate stalking in the United States. These data, collected from stalking victims, address the relationship between victims' perceptions of the stalker's motives on two post-victimization outcomes. Specifically, we examined the relationship between the victim's assessment of motive and the degree of harm they reported, along with exploring the relationship between harm and the likelihoods of engaging in self-protective behaviors. Here, harm was measured through an index of specific fears, concerns, and emotional distresses. We found that the frequency of stalking behaviors, the duration of the stalking experience, and the overall invasiveness of the victimization, in addition to certain motives, were positively correlated with harm. Furthermore, we found that harm was positively correlated with a number of protective actions. For researchers, this work may serve to provide entry points in the development of new grounded theory. For practitioners in law enforcement, this work may provide insights into the invasive nature of stalking and the fear and harm caused to the victim.

A critical analysis of stalking theory and implications for research and practice.

This article comprehensively reviews and critiques theories providing an aetiological account of stalking. We evaluate applications of preexisting psychological theories to stalking (attachment theory, evolutionary theory, social learning theory, information processing models of aggression, coercive control theory, and behavioural theory) as well as the only novel theory of stalking to date: Relational goal pursuit theory. Our aim was to identify which are supported by research, identify gaps in theoretical scope and explanatory depth and examine how current theories might inform clinical practice. This evaluation suggests that theories of stalking are underdeveloped relative to other areas of forensic clinical psychology and the theoretical literature is relatively stagnant. Consequently, there is limited research into clinically meaningful constructs that can guide the assessment, formulation and treatment of this client group. We identify similarities across existing theories, discussing implications for future research and clinical practice with people who stalk.

The temporal relationship between mental health service use and stalking perpetration.

OBJECTIVE: Mental disorder is common among people who stalk. However, the nature of this association is unclear and it is not known whether the commencement of stalking is associated with symptoms of disorder. This study used a longitudinal design to examine the association between the onset and cessation of stalking behavior and indicators of mental disorder in the form of mental health service use. METHOD: Data linkage was used to explore public mental health service use among 157 people who engaged in stalking in Melbourne, Australia. Mental health service use across the lifetime, 5 months prior to stalking onset, between the onset and cessation of stalking (during stalking) and 5 months post-stalking was identified. Mixed regression models tested temporal associations between types of mental health service use (acute vs continuing care) and onset and cessation of stalking in a subsample of 130 participants where dates of the stalking episode were available. RESULTS: A total of 105 (67%) participants had lifetime use of public mental health services, while 15% accessed mental health services in the 5 months prior to (N = 19) or during the stalking (N = 20) and 22% (N = 29) used services in the 5 months after the stalking ceased. Odds of using acute mental health services and average monthly rate of use were highest during the stalking. Odds and average monthly rate of using continuing care were highest after the episode ceased. CONCLUSIONS: Most people who stalk have used public mental health services, but a minority access services immediately prior to or during the stalking episode. Acute service use was more common during the stalking, while use of continuing care services was more common after the stalking ceased. These findings provide preliminary support for a temporal relationship between acute mental disorder and stalking behavior.

Control Balance, Personality Traits, Attachment, and Communication Styles Associated with Stalking.

Stalking is associated with negative occupational, physical, social, and psychological consequences, yet little is known about who is at risk of being stalked. The purpose of the current study was to determine if individuals with experiences of being stalked have unique personality traits, attachment, and communication styles. Participants (N = 180; 78% female, mean age = 24, SD = 8.18) completed an online, self-report survey utilizing a cross-sectional, correlational design. Results indicated that 21% (N = 38) of participants reported experiences of being stalked. Those who had experienced stalking had a higher control deficit (t = 3.99, p = .000), higher control surplus (t = 2.14, p = .03), and lower general health scores (t = -2.50, p = .01), as compared to participants who had not experienced stalking. Results also showed that those who had experienced stalking possessed higher scores of openness (F = 5.41, p = .021), neuroticism (F = 5.29, p = .023), and motivation to defer to a dominant partner (F = 46.79, p = .000). A logistic regression revealed that higher scores on neuroticism, motivation to defer to a dominant partner, and extroversion were associated with an increased risk of being stalked, whereas higher scores on interpersonal deference, disequilibrium, and agreeableness decreased college students' risk of being stalked (χ2 (11, N = 180) = 67.34, p < .001). Findings provide information that may be used to decrease the prevalence of stalking victimization and inform clinical treatment for victims of this crime.

Risk Management in Stalking Victims: A Multi-Agency Approach to Victim Advocacy.

A pilot Multi-Agency Stalking Intervention Programme (MASIP), introduced in three police forces in England, provided among a range of interventions, the delivery of safety planning advice, and needs-based support for stalking victims through a bespoke advocacy service. The ultimate aim of MASIP was to equip victims with tools to manage the variety of harms caused by stalking, as well as enable them to access the criminal justice system with adequate support. This study explores the personal needs of stalking victims from the perspectives of stalking victims, advocates and stakeholders involved in the intervention program, as part of a larger evaluation study conducted by the authors. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a total of 10 stalking victims who participated in the MASIP, three advocates who directly interacted with the victims, and 19 MASIP stakeholders involved in the project. Findings revealed that overall, victims believed the advocacy service aided their ability to cope with the realities of stalking. Having a victim advocate as single point of contact made victims' journey through the justice system easier to navigate, provided them with the emotional support that they required to deal with the harms of stalking and the practical advice offered regarding their personal safety, and allowed them to feel in control of their own risk management. Advocates reported that the multi-agency context helped in risk assessment and ability to design and deliver bespoke support plans, which uniquely improved victims' engagement with the service. Due to the small size and possibly biased sample, our conclusions must be interpreted with caution.

Stalking and Other Forms of Dating Violence: Lessons Learned from You in Relation to Cyber Safety.

Often, individuals share private information on social media, being unaware of online dangers. You, a popular psychological thriller series on Netflix, raises issues of stalking behaviors through social media as part of a pattern of dating violence. Using a qualitative content analysis approach, this study examined how social media is used for erotic stalking, dating violence, and cyber safety awareness (or lack thereof) in You. The researchers analyzed all 10 episodes of the first season of You independently, taking notes. A combined in-depth analysis included discussions of messages and meanings resulting in three overarching themes: obsessive online and in-person erotic stalking, controlling behaviors in the context of the dating relationship, and an apparent indifference about cyber safety with oversharing of personal information on social media, which was exploited by the lead protagonist. You raises important concerns including inappropriate dating behaviors such as stalking, coercive control, violence, and questionable masculine attitudes, which are interwoven with an apparent lack of knowledge and understanding in relation to cyber safety. We concluded that raising awareness of the importance of online safety and security in the context of a dating relationship is imperative and that You can be used as an educational tool.

Stalking Victimization and Emotional Consequences: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between American and Spanish University Students.

This paper entails a comparative study between a country that has criminalized stalking for almost three decades (the U.S.) and a nation that just recently outlawed the phenomenon (Spain). Employing a sample of American and Spanish university students, we examined the prevalence and types of stalking behaviors and victims' emotional responses to their victimization. We also explored whether experiencing a particular category of stalking behaviors (i.e., surveillance and approach stalking) triggers specific emotional responses similarly among American and Spanish victims. We found more than two-thirds (36%) of the Spanish students (n = 638) and almost half (48%) of the American students (n = 411) reported that they have experienced the unwanted or intrusive behaviors included in our study. We also found relative to Spanish victims, American victims were significantly more likely to encounter approach stalking and report feeling anxious, angry, depressed, sick, and suicidal as a result of their victimization. Implications of our findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Understanding Stalking Among University Students in Ghana: A Mixed-Methods Study.

The purpose of this study is to explore experiences of stalking behaviors among midwifery students at one Ghanaian university, as well as their association with mental health disorders. Specifically, this study had the following three aims: (a) to identify the frequency of stalking experiences in this population; (b) to explore mental health symptoms, such as depression and anxiety, within this population; and (c) to better understand intervention opportunities related to stalking, including bystander intervention and use of available resources. The study utilized an exploratory mixed-methods design with surveys (n = 118) and focus group discussions (n = 2 with 16 participants) with midwifery students recruited from a centrally located Ghanaian university campus in July of 2018 using convenience sampling. Results indicate a large percentage (80.3%) of participants have experienced stalking behavior(s) within the last six months. Multiple regression analyses demonstrate a statistically significant relationship between any stalking behaviors and depressive symptomatology as well as between unwanted monitoring/following and anxiety. This was reinforced by focus group discussions in which participants discussed the themes of: (a) types of stalking, with a heavy emphasis on using technology for unwanted following/monitoring; (b) positive versus negative perceptions of stalking intentions, where some types of monitoring and following could be seen as forms of flattery or interest; and (c) barriers to seeking help that focused on stigma, cultural barriers, systemic barriers, and personal barriers. Future research should delve more deeply into barriers to existing resources to identify ways to increase accessibility for stalking survivors in connection with mental health services. This study also highlights the need for additional research to more clearly understand stalking in Ghana so that interventions can begin to address mental health services, healthy relationships, communication, and consent.

Prevalence of Stalking Among Justice Professionals in Portugal.

Despite the growing interest from researchers' in recent years, stalking is a phenomenon of difficult operationalization within the scientific community. Examining the phenomenon in criminal justice professionals has become relevant since the work context is considered a fertile environment for the presence of stalking, despite underreported. This study aims specifically to know the prevalence, nature, dynamics, impact, and help-seeking behaviors (and its perceived effectiveness) of stalking victimization by criminal justice professionals stalked in Portugal. We were also interested in the professionals' perceptions of why they were stalked. The data were collected through a web-based survey, after the approval of the ethic committee. The sample was composed of 270 criminal justice professionals, mostly men (59.3%), with a mean age of 42.70 (SD = 9.07) years. The results showed that 24.8% reported having been stalked at least once in their lifetime. Stalking prevalence was higher in women compared to men. Concerning the profession, the highest prevalence was verified in the group of professionals composed of lawyers, jurists, court officials, and auditors, followed by the group of magistrates, and finally the judges and the criminal police. More diversity of stalking behaviors experienced was associated with a higher frequency of those behaviors. Psychological health (70.7%) and lifestyle/behavioral changes (62.1%) were the most reported areas of impact. Being stalked in a private context (e.g., intimate relationships), for a longer period and feeling a higher level of fear as a result of the stalking campaign were associated with more impact. Most of the victims (74.6%) revealed having sought help to cope with the stalking experience, with women seeking more help than men (88.6% vs. 59.4%). For bringing evidence that criminal justice professionals are at risk of being stalked, these findings can contribute to the adoption of policies and strategies to prevent stalking victimization among this population.

Bridging the Gap: The Predictive Roles of Emotion Dysregulation and Stalking-related Attitudes on Offline and Online Stalking and Intrusive Harassment.

Stalking and intrusive harassment (SIH) are prevalent and serious public health issues associated with significant psychological, social, and economic consequences. Further exacerbating this problem is the growing use of technology and the internet, which has facilitated the perpetration of SIH behaviors via electronic means. Given its prevalence and negative impact, it is imperative to identify precursors of cyber and offline SIH to better predict and mitigate its detrimental effects. Thus, the current study examined whether overall emotion dysregulation and stalking-related attitudes are predictive factors of SIH perpetration. In addition, it was determined whether specific difficulties with emotion regulation and stalking supportive attitudes were differentially associated with online and offline SIH perpetration. Participants consisted of 874 university students who completed an online survey comprised of a battery of self-report measures, including the Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale, Stalking-related Attitudes Questionnaire, Obsessive-Relational Intrusion Pursuit Short Form, and the Cyber-Obsessional Pursuit scale. Logistic regression analyses revealed that overall emotion dysregulation and greater endorsement of stalking supportive attitudes predicted SIH perpetration. Moreover, emotion regulation difficulties distinguished the domain(s) in which an individual was more likely to perpetrate SIH behaviors. Specifically, those who reported more problems with emotion regulation, particularly a lack of emotional awareness, were more likely to engage in both offline and online SIH behaviors concurrently than to perpetrate purely offline or purely online. These findings have significant implications for stalking risk assessment and prevention efforts. In particular, understanding the predictive roles of emotion dysregulation and stalking-related attitudes on online and offline SIH perpetration can inform the development and improvement of evidence-based prevention and intervention programs, as well as stalking risk assessment instruments.

Predictors of varying levels of risks posed by fixated individuals to British public figures.

Concerning approaches and communications to the Royal Family and other British public figures are relatively numerous. This paper examines over 2000 such cases logged over a three-year period in the United Kingdom. Using police and health data, the paper conducts a series of bivariate and multivariate analyses to demonstrate the predictors of what types of risk are posed by an individual case (e.g., communicate only, approach, security breach). The results showed that (a) the rates of serious mental disorders are higher among this sample than the general population base rate, (b) approachers were significantly more likely than communicators to suffer from serious mental disorders, (c) approachers were significantly more likely than communicators to have a history of substance use and abuse problems, (d) approachers were significantly more likely than communicators to have a history of violent behavior against property and persons, and (e) the motivations of approachers and communicators significantly differ. The paper concludes with a consideration of the implications for threat assessment and management.

Cyber Stalking, Cyber Harassment, and Adult Mental Health: A Systematic Review.

As Internet use increases, there is a growing risk of online harms, including cyber stalking and cyber harassment. However, there has been limited research investigating the impact of such online harms upon adults' well-being. This article engages in a systematic literature review concerning the mental health impact of online stalking and harassment for adult victims to further understand their experiences and the effects these have on their lives. Our research utilized the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis technique to review articles published in eight online databases. A total of 1,204 articles were extracted and, ultimately, 43 articles analyzed. Forty-two of the reviewed articles reported that victims of cyber stalking and/or harassment experienced a multitude of harmful and detrimental consequences for their mental health, including depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation, and panic attacks. Victims recounted the lack of support they received from the criminal justice system and their subsequent distrust of technology postabuse. Only one study found no relationship between cyber abuse victimization and the well-being dimensions they examined. Our research highlights the need to devise practical solutions to tackle and minimize this victimization. Furthermore, it underlines the necessity for adult education concerning safer technology use, as well as for researchers to be transparent regarding the platforms that victims have been abused on, so we can better infer where and how exactly individuals need support to interact safely online.

The Assessment and Management of Stalking Perpetrated by Clients Against Their Counselors.

Mental health professionals are at heightened risk of stalking victimization, however minimal research has examined empirically supported risk factors for stalking and the efficacy of risk management strategies. Three hundred and six counselors were surveyed, and the present study focuses on the 7% (n = 23) who had been stalked by clients. Results describe the characteristics of stalking, perpetrators, and victims and the perceived efficacy of management strategies employed. Stalking behaviors tended to be of lower severity. Common perpetrator risk factors included relationship problems, anger, and obsession. Victim vulnerabilities were identified, where many victims engaged in behavior considered ineffective in response to stalking. Victims often encountered problems coping with victimization due to inadequate access to resources. Results indicate that risk management plans must be individualized and highlight ways that mental health professionals can and would like to be protected from stalking.

Unique and Cumulative Effects of Intimate Partner Cybervictimization Types on Alcohol Use in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Emerging Adults.

The use of modern technology has inadvertently created newer platforms for intimate partner victimization to take place. The present study investigated (1) whether psychological, sexual, and stalking cyber intimate partner victimization (cyber IPV) types were uniquely associated with alcohol use, and (2) whether there was additive effect of cyber IPV types on alcohol use, after controlling for histories of childhood maltreatment types and face-to-face intimate partner victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) emerging adults. Participants were 277 self-identifying LGB individuals in the age range of 18-29 years (M = 25.39, SD = 2.77; 16.6% lesbian, 25.6% gay, 43% bisexual women). Participants completed an online questionnaire assessing cyber IPV types, namely, psychological, sexual, and stalking, five forms of childhood maltreatment, face-to-face IPV types (i.e., physical, psychological, and sexual), and alcohol use. Findings indicated that 29.2% (n = 81) endorsed all three types of cyber IPV. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that only sexual cyber IPV was uniquely associated with alcohol use. In support of the cumulative risk hypothesis, those with exposure to three types of cyber IPV were more likely to have greater alcohol use compared to those with exposure to any one type of cyber IPV. Findings indicate that cyber IPV can lead to behavioral health challenges, such as an increase in alcohol use among LGB emerging adults. Findings call for interventions focusing on generating awareness regarding the ill effects of cyber IPV and for mental health professionals to develop treatment programs to aid in the well-being of the victim.

The Prevalence and Effects of Stalking.

BACKGROUND: In 2003, we carried out the first epidemiological study on the frequency and effects of stalking in Germany that was based on a random population sample. We repeated the study with the same design in 2018 in order to assess any potential alterations over time in the frequency of stalking and of psychological problems in the affected persons. As far as we know, this is the first replication study of this kind to be carried out anywhere. METHODS: 1000 women and 1000 men were randomly chosen from the residents' registration data of Mannheim, Germany. Each one of them received, by mail, a comprehensive questionnaire about stalking, as well as the WHO-5 Well-Being Index and the German version of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-D). RESULTS: In the Mannheim population samples (2003: N = 675; 2018: N = 444), the lifetime prevalence of being stalked was 11.6% in 2003 (95% confidence interval, [9.2; 14.4]) and 10.8% in 2018 [8.1; 13.7]. In both 2003 and 2018, persons who had been stalked had significantly worse mental well-being than unaffected persons (WHO-5 summated score 2003: 11.2 [9.7; 12.6] vs. 15.5 [15.1; 16.0], WHO-5 summated score 2018: 11.8 [10.1; 13.6] vs. 14.5 [13.9; 15.0]). A markedly higher percentage of persons who had been stalked also fulfilled the syndrome criteria for at least one mental disorder (PHQ-D 2003: 50.0% vs. 22.5%; odds ratio [OR]: 3.5 [2.1; 5.6], PHQ-D 2018: 46.5% vs. 24.4%; OR: 2.7 [1.4; 5.1]). In 2018, as in 2003, persons who had been stalked were dissatisfied with, or unaware of, the opportu - nities that they had to get help from the police and the judicial system. CONCLUSION: Stalking remains a major problem that must be taken seriously. Physicians and psychologists should be well informed about it in order to help affected persons who turn to them for medical and psychological assistance.